O efeito do tipo de mulher na categorização social inicial e na atribuição de características estereotípicas
The Effect of Woman’s Type on Initial Social Categorization and the Attribution of Stereotypical Characteristics
Anna Souza , Gabriela Gonçalves , Alexandra Gomes , Joana Santos , Cátia Sousa , Jean-Christophe Giger
Suma Psicológica, (2022), 29(1), pp. 1-10.
Recebido em 21 de julho de 2021
Aceito em 30 de novembro de 2021
Introdução: Os estereótipos de género dizem respeito a crenças partilhadas sobre os atributos físicos, psicológicos e comportamentais de homens e mulheres. De acordo com a literatura, observa-se alguma variabilidade nos estereótipos para a categoria mulher, em função de serem associadas a uma de três subcategorias: mulher tradicional, mulher independente e mulher sexy. Este estudo pretendeu observar os estereótipos predominantes e diferenciadores de cada tipo de mulher e a formação de impressões numa amostra portuguesa. Método: Os participantes (N = 78), distribuídos em 6 condições de acordo com o design experimental 3 (tipo de mulher: tradicional, independente vs. sexy) x 2 (sexo do participante: homem vs. mulher), deveriam, com base numa descrição prévia, indicar a área profissional, aparência física e modo de vestir da mulher alvo e formar uma impressão em termos dos atributos calorosa e competente. Resultados: Os resultados indicam maiores avaliações de calor para a mulher tradicional, pouca variabilidade nas avaliações de competência e as respostas obtidas através da análise semântica conferem diferentes imagens para os três subgrupos de mulher. Conclusões: Os resultados confirmam parcialmente as hipóteses e são discutidos com base nas implicações para a literatura dos estereótipos de género.
Palavras-chave:
Papéis de género, perceção social, estereótipos de género, subtipos de mulher, calor, competência
Introduction: Gender stereotypes are beliefs about the physical, psychological, and behavioral attributes of men and women. According to the literature, there is some variability in stereotypes for the woman category, as they are associated with one of three subcategories: traditional woman, independent woman, and sexy woman. This study aimed to observe the predominant and differentiating stereotypes of each type of woman and the formation of impressions in a Portuguese sample. Method: Participants (N = 78), distributed in 6 conditions according to the experimental design 3 (woman type: traditional, independent vs. sexy) x 2 (participant’s gender: male vs. female), should base on a previous description indicate the professional field, physical appearance and dress of the target woman and form an impression in terms of warm and competent attributes. Results: The results indicate higher warmth ratings for traditional women, little variability in competency ratings, and the responses obtained through semantic analysis provide different images for the three subgroups of women. Conclusions: The results partially confirm the hypotheses and are discussed based on the implications for the gender stereotypes` literature.
Keywords:
Gender roles, social perception, gender stereotypes, woman subtypes, warmth, competence
Am-bady, N., & Skowronski, J. J. (2008). First impressions. Guilford Press.
Asch, S. E. (1946). Forming impressions of personality. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 41(3), 258-290. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0055756
Ashmore, R. D., DelBoca, F. K., & Titus, D. (1984). Types of women and men: Yours, mine, and ours [Paper presentation]. American Psychological Association Convention, Toronto, Canada.
Baker, A., & Florack, A. (2021). Uncovering men’s stereotype content (warmth and competence) associated with a representative range of male body size categories. Body Image, 37, 148- 161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2021.02.007
Baumgartner, S. E., Sumter, S. R., Peter, J., & Valkenburg, P. M. (2015). Sexual self-presentation on social network sites: Who does it and how is it perceived? Computers in Human Behavior, 50, 91-100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.03.061
Becker, J. C. (2010). Why do women endorse hostile and benevolent sexism? The role of salient female subtypes and internalization of sexist contents. Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, 62(7–8), 453-467. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-009-9707-4
Camargo, B. V., & Justo, A. M. (2013). Tutorial para uso do software IRAMUTEQ (Interface de R pour les Analyses Multidimensionnelles de Textes et de Questionnaires). http://www.iramuteq.org/documentation/fichiers/tutoriel-en-portugais
Chuanchuan, Z., & Jingwen, W. (2021). Gender roles and women’s labor market outcomes. China Economic Quarterly International, 1, 97-108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ceqi.2021.04.002
Cuadrado-Guirado, I., & López-Turrillo, E. (2014). What do adolescents think and feel about the different female subtypes? An application of the stereotype content model (SCM). International Journal of Social Psychology, 29(2), 235-264. https://doi.org/10.1080/02134748.2014.918823
Cuddy, A. J. C., Fiske, S. T., & Glick, P. (2008). Warmth and competence as universal dimensions of social perception: The stereotype content model and the BIAS map. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 61-149. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(07)00002-0
Daniels, E. A., & Zurbriggen, E. L. (2016). The price of sexy: Viewers’ perceptions of a sexualized versus nonsexualized Facebook profile photograph. Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 5(1), 2-14. https://doi.org/10.1037/ppm0000048
Deaux, K., Winton, W., Crowley, M., & Lewis, L. L. (1985). Level of categorization and content of gender stereotypes. Social Cognition, 3, 145-167. https://doi.org/10.1521/soco.1985.3.2.145
Diekman, A. B., & Eagly, A. H. (2000). Stereotypes as dynamic constructs: Women and men of the past, present, and future. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26, 1171-1188. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167200262001
Dion, K., Berscheid, E., & Walster, E. (1972). What is beautiful is good. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 24(3), 285- 290. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0033731
Eagly, A. H. (1987). Sex differences in social behavior: A social-role interpretation. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Eagly, A. H., & Mladinic, A. (1989). Gender stereotypes and attitudes toward women and men. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 15, 543-558. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167289154008
Eagly, A. H., Nater, C., Miller, D. I., Kaufmann, M., & Sczesny, S. (2020). Gender stereotypes have changed: A cross-temporal meta-analysis of U.S. public opinion polls from 1946 to 2018. American Psychologist, 75(3), 301-315. https://doi. org/10.1037/amp0000494
Fasoli, F., Maass, A., Volpato, C., & Pacilli, M. G. (2018). The (Female) graduate: Choice and consequences of women’s clothing. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 1-14. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02401
Fisher, A. N., Stinson, D. A., & Kalajdzic, A. (2019). Unpacking backlash: Individual and contextual moderators of bias against female professors. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 41(5), 305-325. https://doi.org/10.1080/01973533.2019.1652178
Fiske S. T. (2017). Prejudices in cultural contexts: Shared stereotypes (gender, age) versus variable stereotypes (race, ethnicity, religion). Perspectives on Psychological Science: A Journal of the Association for Psychological Science, 12(5), 791-799. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691617708204
Fiske, S. T., Cuddy, A. J. C., & Glick, P. (2007). Universal dimensions of social cognition: Warmth and competence. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 11(2), 77-83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2006.11.005
Fiske, S. T., Cuddy, A. J. C., Glick, P., & Xu, J. (2002). A model of (often mixed) stereotype content: Competence and warmth respectively follow from perceived status and competition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82(6), 878-902. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.82.6.878
Forsythe, S. M. (1990). Effect of applicant’s clothing on interviewer’s decision to hire. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 20, 1579-1595. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.1990.tb01494.x
Froehlich, L., Olsson, M. I. T., Dorrough, A. R., & Martiny, S. E. (2020). Gender at work across nations: Men and women working in male-dominated and female-dominated occupations are differentially associated with agency and communion. Journal of Social Issues, 76(3), 484-511. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12390
Glick, P., Larsen, S., Johnson, C., & Branstiter, H. (2005). Evaluations of sexy women in lowand high-status jobs. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 29, 389-395. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2005.00238.x
Gomes, A., Gonçalves, G., Sousa, C., Santos, J., & Giger, J. C. (2021). Are we getting less sexist? A ten-year gap comparison analysis of sexism in a Portuguese sample. Psychological Reports. https://doi.org/10.1177/00332941211011073
Gómez-Berrocal, C., Cuadrado, I., Navas, M., Quiles, M. N., & Morera, M.D. (2011). Sexismo hostil y benevolente: dimensiones de comparación intergrupal, imagen de los subtipos de mujer y autoimagen del endogrupo. Revista de Psicología Social, 26(1), 45-62. https://doi.org/10.1174/021347411794078453
Gouda-Vossos, A., Brooks, R. C., & Dixson, B. (2019). The interplay between economic status and attractiveness, and the importance of attire in mate choice judgments. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 1-14. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00462
Gurung, R., Punke, E., Brickner, M., & Badalamenti, V. (2018). Power and provocativeness: The effects of subtle changes in clothing on perceptions of working women. The Journal of Social Psychology, 158(2), 252-255. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.2017.1331991
Haines, E. L., Deaux, K., & Lofaro, N. (2016). The times they are a-changing . . . or are they not? A comparison of gender stereotypes,1983-2014. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 40, 353-363. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684316634081
Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture’s consequences: International differences in work-related values. Sage.
Howlett, N., Pine, K. J., Cahill, N., Orakçıoğlu, İ., & Fletcher, B. (2015). Unbuttoned: The interaction between provocativeness of female work attire and occupational status. Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, 72, 105-116. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-015-0450-8
Kossek, E. E., Perrigino, M., & Rock, A. G. (2021). From ideal workers to ideal work for all: A 50-year review integrating careers and work-family research with a future research agenda. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 126, 103504. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2020.103504
Ma, A., Axt, J., & Kay, A. C. (2019). A control-based account of stereotyping. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 84, 103819. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2019.103819
Moya, M., & Moya-Garófano, A. (2021). Evolution of gender stereotypes in Spain: From 1985 to 2018. Psicothema, 33(1), 53-59. https://doi.org/10.7334/psicothema2020.328
Okahana, H., & Zhou, E. (2018). Graduate enrollment and degrees: 2007 to 2017. Council of Graduate Schools.
Orghian, D., & Hidalgo, C. A. (2020). Humans judge faces in incomplete photographs as physically more attractive. Scientific Reports, 10(1), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-56437-4
Prentice, D. A., & Carranza, E. (2002). What women should be, shouldn’t be, are allowed to be, and don’t have to be: The contents of prescriptive gender stereotypes. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 26(4), 269-281. https://doi.org/10.1111/1471-6402.t01-1-00066
Smith, L. (2013). Working hard with gender: Gendered labour for women in male dominated occupations of manual trades and information technology (IT). Equality, Diversity and Inclusion: An International Journal, 32, 592-603. https://doi.org/10.1108/EDI-12-2012-0116
Todorov, A., Mandisodza, A. N., Goren, A., & Hall, C. C. (2005). Inferences of competence from faces predict election outcomes. Science (New York, N.Y.), 308(5728), 1623-1626. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1110589
Uğurlu, N.S., Türkoğlu, B., Kuzlak, A., & Gupta, A. (2018). Stereotypes of single and married women and men in Turkish culture. Current Psychology, 40, 213-225. https://doi.org/10.1007/S12144-018-9920-9
Unstereotype Alliance. (2018). Beyond gender: The invisible stereotypes. The United Nations Women Report. https://bit. ly/3tUMfqp
Vergès, P. (1992). L’évocation de l’argent: une méthode pour la définition du noyau central de la représentation. Bulletin de Psychologie, 45, 203-209.
Wolter, R. P., Gurrieri, C., & Sorribas, E. (2009). Empirical illustration of the hierarchical organisation of social thought: A domino effect? Interamerican Journal of Psychology, 43, 1-11.
Yzerbyt, V. Y., Schadron, G., Leyens, J.-P., & Rocher, S. (1994). Social judgeability: The impact of meta-informational cues on the use of stereotypes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66(1), 48-55. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.66.1.48